Why Did People Start to Portray Buddha in Art

Creative practices influenced past Buddhism

Thangka of Shakyamuni Buddha, Tibet, c. 18th century

Buddhist art is fine art influenced by Buddhism. It includes depictions of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, notable Buddhist figures both historical and mythical, narrative scenes from their lives, mandalas, and physical objects associated with Buddhist practice, such as vajras, bells, stupas and Buddhist temple architecture.^[i] Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent, post-obit the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama from the sixth to 5th century BCE.

As Buddhism spread and evolved in each new host country, Buddhist art followed in its footsteps. It developed to the north through Fundamental Asia and into East asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art, and to the eastward as far as Southeast Asia to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art. In Republic of india, Buddhist art flourished and co-developed with Hindu and Jain fine art, with cavern temple complexes built together, each likely influencing the other.^[ii]

History [edit]

Pre-iconic phase (5th–1st century BCE) [edit]

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. These took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the ornamentation of stupas. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human being grade, merely simply through Buddhist symbolism. This period may have been aniconic.

Artists were reluctant to describe the Buddha anthropomorphically, and adult sophisticated aniconic symbols to avoid doing so (even in narrative scenes where other human figures would appear). This tendency remained every bit tardily as the 2d century CE in the southern parts of India, in the art of the Amaravati School (encounter: Mara's attack on the Buddha). It has been argued that earlier anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha may have been fabricated of forest and may have perished since so. All the same, no related archaeological evidence has been found.

The earliest works of Buddhist art in Bharat date back to the 1st century BCE. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya became a model for similar structures in Burma and Republic of indonesia. The frescoes at Sigiriya are said to be fifty-fifty older than the Ajanta Caves paintings.^[3]

Iconic phase (1st century CE – present) [edit]

Chinese historical sources and mural paintings in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang accurately depict the travels of the explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian to Key Asia as far as Bactria around 130 BCE, and the same murals describe the Emperor Han Wudi (156–87 BCE) worshiping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although there is no other mention of Han Wudi worshiping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals would advise that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2d century BCE, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.

Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to sally from the 1st century CE in Northern Bharat, with the Bimaran casket. The 3 primary centers of creation have been identified equally Gandhara in today'south N West Frontier Province, in Islamic republic of pakistan, Amaravati and the region of Mathura, in fundamental northern India.

Hellenistic culture was introduced in Gandhara during the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Chandragupta Maurya (r. 321–298 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire, conquered the Macedonian satraps during the Seleucid-Mauryan War of 305–303 BCE. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE), who formed the largest Empire in the Indian subcontinent, converted to Buddhism following the Kalinga State of war. Abandoning an expansionist ideology, Ashoka worked to spread the religion and philosophy throughout his empire every bit described in the edicts of Ashoka. Ashoka claims to have converted the Greek populations within his realm to Buddhism:

Here in the king'south domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are post-obit Dear-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.^[5]

Subsequently the overthrow of the Mauryan Empire by the Shunga Empire, the Greco-Bactrian and subsequently the Indo-Greek Kingdoms invaded north-western Republic of india. They facilitated the spread of Greco-Buddhist art style to other parts of the subcontinent. The Indo-Greek King Menander I was renown as a great patron of Buddhism, attaining the championship of an arhat.^[6] Meanwhile, Pushyamitra Shunga persecuted Buddhism, presumably to further erase the legacy of the Mauryan Empire.^[7] This led to the decline of Buddhist fine art eastward of Mathura.

Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Hellenistic artistic influence in the forms of human being figures and ornamentation. Figures were much larger than whatsoever known from India previously, and as well more naturalistic, and new details included wavy pilus, pall roofing both shoulders, shoes and sandals, and acanthus foliage ornament.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The art of Mathura tends to be based on an Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed clothes roofing the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat.^{[ citation needed ]}

Mathura and Gandhara besides influenced each other. During their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both beingness capitals of the empire. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha was substantially a issue of a local development of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.

This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, attitudes and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as both man and God became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.^{[ citation needed ]}

Remains of early Buddhist painting in India are vanishingly rare, with the later phases of the Ajanta Caves giving the peachy majority of surviving piece of work, created over a relatively short up to virtually 480 CE. These are highly sophisticated works, plainly produced in a well-adult tradition, probably painting secular work in palaces as much every bit religious subjects.

Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries. The pinkish sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE) to achieve a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling. The fine art of the Gupta school was extremely influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia. At the finish of the twelfth century CE, Buddhism in its full glory came to exist preserved only in the Himalayan regions in Republic of india. These areas, helped by their location, were in greater contact with Tibet and China - for example the art and traditions of Ladakh carry the stamp of Tibetan and Chinese influence.

Buddhist expansion throughout Asia.

As Buddhism expanded exterior of Bharat from the 1st century CE, its original creative package blended with other artistic influences, leading to a progressive differentiation amongst the countries adopting the faith.

A Northern road was established from the 1st century CE through Central Asia, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Communist china, Korea, Nippon and Vietnam, in which Mahayana Buddhism prevailed.
A Southern road, where Theravada Buddhism dominated, went through Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

Northern Buddhist art [edit]

The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Nippon started in the 1st century CE with a semi-legendary account of an embassy sent to the Westward by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75 CE). However, extensive contacts started in the 2nd century CE, probably as a effect of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the missionary efforts of a groovy number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese, such every bit Lokaksema, were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean.

Central Asian missionary efforts along the Silk Road were accompanied by a flux of artistic influences, visible in the development of Serindian art from the 2nd through the 11th century in the Tarim Bowl, modern Xinjiang. Serindian art often derives from the Greco-Buddhist art of the Gandhara district of what is now Pakistan, combining Indian, Greek and Roman influences. Silk Route Greco-Buddhist creative influences can be plant as far as Japan to this solar day, in architectural motifs, Buddhist imagery, and a select few representations of Japanese gods.

The art of the northern route was also highly influenced past the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, an inclusive co-operative of Buddhism characterized by the adoption of new texts, in add-on to the traditional āgamas, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. Mahāyāna goes beyond the traditional Early Buddhist ideal of the release from suffering (duḥkha) of arhats, and emphasizes the bodhisattva path. The Mahāyāna sutras elevate the Buddha to a transcendent and infinite being, and characteristic a pantheon of bodhisattvas devoting themselves to the Six Perfections, ultimate knowledge (Prajñāpāramitā), enlightenment, and the liberation of all sentient beings. Northern Buddhist fine art thus tends to exist characterized by a very rich and syncretic Buddhist pantheon, with a multitude of images of the various buddhas, bodhisattvas, and heavenly beings (devas).

Afghanistan [edit]

Head of Buddha, Afghanistan (probably Hadda), 5th–6th century

Buddhist art in Afghanistan (old Bactria) persisted for several centuries until the spread of Islam in the 7th century. It is exemplified by the Buddhas of Bamyan. Other sculptures, in stucco, schist or clay, display very strong blending of Indian mail-Gupta mannerism and Classical influence, Hellenistic or peradventure even Greco-Roman.

Although Islamic dominion was express tolerant of other religions "of the Book", information technology showed cypher tolerance for Buddhism, which was perceived as a religion depending on "idolatry". Human figurative art forms as well being prohibited under Islam, Buddhist art suffered numerous attacks, which culminated with the systematic destructions by the Taliban regime. The Buddhas of Bamyan, the sculptures of Hadda, and many of the remaining artifacts at the Transitional islamic state of afghanistan museum accept been destroyed.

The multiple conflicts since the 1980s too have led to a systematic pillage of archaeological sites apparently in the hope of reselling in the international market what artifacts could be found.

Central Asia [edit]

Central Asia long played the part of a coming together identify between Communist china, Bharat and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the Former Han to the W led to increased contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the North led to the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oasis of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted nigh entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their chief objectives was to welcome and service travelers between E and Westward.

The eastern part of Fundamental Asia (Chinese Turkestan (Tarim Basin, Xinjiang) in particular has revealed an extremely rich Serindian art (wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Works of art reminiscent of the Gandharan style, also as scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharoshti have been found. These influences were chop-chop absorbed however by the vigorous Chinese civilisation, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point.

Prc [edit]

A seated Maitreya statue Northern Wei, 512 CE.

Buddhism arrived in Mainland china around the 1st century CE, and introduced new types of fine art into China, specially in the expanse of statuary. Receiving this afar religion, strong Chinese traits were incorporated into Buddhist fine art.

Northern Dynasties [edit]

In the 5th to 6th centuries, the Northern Dynasties developed rather symbolic and abstract modes of representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to be solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its altitude from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an accessible and realistic style, progressively led to a modify towards more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art.

Sites preserving Northern Wei Dynasty Buddhist sculpture:

Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi
Longmen Grottoes, Henan
Bingling Temple, Gansu

Tang Dynasty - Qing Dynasty [edit]

Post-obit a transition under the Sui Dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of the Tang evolved towards a markedly lifelike expression. Because of the dynasty'south openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form, inspired past the Indian art of the Gupta period. During that time, the Tang capital of Chang'an (today's Xi'an) became an important center for Buddhism. From in that location Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese missions to Tang China helped information technology gain a foothold in Japan. Foreign influences came to be negatively perceived in China towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wuzong outlawed all "foreign" religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in club to support the ethnic religion, Taoism. He confiscated Buddhist possessions, and forced the faith to get underground, therefore affecting the evolution of the religion and its arts in Prc.

After the Tang dynasty, Buddhism continued to receive official patronage in several states during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which continued under the successive Liao, Jin, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties. This was marked past construction of new awe-inspiring Buddhist artwork at grottoes, such as the massive Buddha sculptures at the Dazu Rock Carvings in Sichuan province, likewise as at temples, such as the giant esoteric statues of the Bodhisattva Guanyin in Longxing Temple and Dule Temple.^[10] ^[11] ^[12] The diverse Chinese Buddhist traditions, such as Tiantai and Huayan, experienced revivals. Chan Buddhism, in detail, rose to great prominence under the Song dynasty. Early paintings by Chan monks tended to eschew the meticulous realism of Gongbi painting in favour of vigorous, monochrome paintings, attempting to limited the touch of enlightenment through their brushwork.^[13] The rise of Neo-Confucianism under Zhu Eleven in the 12th century resulted in considerable criticism of the monk-painters by the literati. Despite this, Chan ink paintings continued to be good past monastics through the Yuan (1271 - 1368) and Ming (1368 - 1644) dynasties well into the Qing (1636 - 1912) dynasty.^[14] ^[fifteen] ^[16] Aside from Chan ink paintings, other forms of painting also proliferated, especially during the Ming dynasty, such as the Water and Land Ritual paintings and mural art which draw various Buddhist divinities and other figures.^[17]

During the Qing Dynasty, Manchu emperors supported Buddhist practices for a range of political and personal reasons. The Shunzhi Emperor was a devotee of Chan Buddhism, while his successor, the Kangxi Emperor promoted Tibetan Buddhism, claiming to be the human embodiment of the bodhisattva Manjusri.^[xviii] Withal, it was under the dominion of the third Qing ruler, the Qianlong Emperor, that regal patronage of the Buddhist arts reached its height in this catamenia. He commissioned a vast number of religious works in the Tibetan style, many of which depicted him in various sacred guises.^[19] Works of art produced during this period are characterized by a unique fusion of Tibetan and Chinese artistic approaches. They combine a characteristically Tibetan attention to iconographic detail with Chinese-inspired decorative elements. Inscriptions are often written in Chinese, Manchu, Tibetan, Mongolian and Sanskrit, while paintings are oftentimes rendered in vibrant colors.^[twenty] Additionally, the Qianlong Emperor initiated a number of large-scale construction projects; in 1744 he rededicated the Yonghe Temple as Beijing's main Tibetan Buddhist monastery, donating a number of valuable religious paintings, sculptures, textiles and inscriptions to the temple.^[21] The Xumi Fushou Temple, and the works housed within, is another project commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor that embodies the unique blend of Chinese, Tibetan and Manchurian artistic styles that characterized some of the Buddhist art produced in China under Qianlong'south reign. After the Qianlong Emperor's abdication in 1795, the popularity of Tibetan Buddhism at the Qing court declined. The motives backside the Qing emperors' promotion of Tibetan Buddhism have been interpreted as a calculated act of political manipulation, and a means of forging ties between Manchu, Mongolian, and Tibetan communities, though this has been challenged by recent scholarship.^[22]

Legacy [edit]

The popularization of Buddhism in Mainland china has fabricated the country home to the richest collections of Buddhist arts in the world. The Mogao Caves nigh Dunhuang and the Bingling Temple caves near Yongjing in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings about Chongqing municipality are among the nearly important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of iii rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world. Numerous temples throughout Communist china still preserve various Buddhist statues and paintings from previous dynasties. In improver, Buddhist sculptures are still produced in contemporary times mainly for enshrinement in Buddhist temples and shrines.

Korea [edit]

Korean Buddhist art generally reflects an interaction between other Buddhist influences and a strongly original Korean civilization. Additionally, the fine art of the steppes, specially Siberian and Scythian influences, are evident in early Korean Buddhist art based on the excavation of artifacts and burial goods such as Silla royal crowns, belt buckles, daggers, and comma-shaped gogok.^[23] ^[24] The style of this ethnic art was geometric, abstract and richly adorned with a characteristic "barbarian" luxury ^{[ analyze ]}. Although many other influences were strong, Korean Buddhist art, "bespeaks a sobriety, sense of taste for the right tone, a sense of brainchild just likewise of colours that curiously enough are in line with gimmicky gustatory modality" (Pierre Cambon, Arts asiatiques – Guimet').^{[ citation needed ]}

Three Kingdoms of Korea [edit]

Bangasayusang, semi-seated contemplative Maitreya probably from Silla, circa early 7th century.

The beginning of the Three Kingdoms of Korea to officially receive Buddhism was Goguryeo in 372.^[25] However, Chinese records and the utilise of Buddhist motifs in Goguryeo murals betoken the introduction of Buddhism earlier than the official appointment.^[26] The Baekje Kingdom officially recognized Buddhism in 384.^[25] The Silla Kingdom, isolated and with no easy bounding main or country access to Communist china, officially adopted Buddhism in 535 although the foreign religion was known in the kingdom due to the piece of work of Goguryeo monks since the early on fifth century.^[27] The introduction of Buddhism stimulated the need for artisans to create images for veneration, architects for temples, and the literate for the Buddhist sutras and transformed Korean civilization. Particularly important in the transmission of sophisticated art styles to the Korean kingdoms was the art of the "barbarian" Tuoba, a clan of non-Han Chinese Xianbei people who established the Northern Wei Dynasty in China in 386. The Northern Wei style was particularly influential in the art of the Goguryeo and Baekje. Baekje artisans later transmitted this style along with Southern Dynasty elements and distinct Korean elements to Japan. Korean artisans were highly selective of the styles they incorporated and combined different regional styles together to create a specific Korean Buddhist fine art style.^[28] ^[29]

While Goguryeo Buddhist fine art exhibited vitality and mobility alike with Northern Wei prototypes, the Baekje Kingdom was also in close contact with the Southern Dynasties of China and this close diplomatic contact is exemplified in the gentle and proportional sculpture of the Baekje, epitomized by Baekje sculpture exhibiting the fathomless smile known to art historians as the Baekje smile.^[30] The Silla Kingdom likewise developed a distinctive Buddhist art tradition epitomized past the Bangasayusang, a half-seated wistful statue of Maitreya whose Korean-made twin was sent to Nippon equally a proselytizing gift and at present resides in the Koryu-ji Temple in Japan.^[31]

Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms period stimulated massive temple-building projects, such as the Mireuksa Temple in the Baekje Kingdom and the Hwangnyongsa Temple in Silla. Baekje architects were famed for their skill and were instrumental in building the massive nine-story pagoda at Hwangnyongsa and early Buddhist temples in Yamato Japan such as Hōkō-ji (Asuka-dera) and Hōryū-ji.^[32] 6th century Korean Buddhist art exhibited the cultural influences of China and India only began to show distinctive indigenous characteristics.^[33] These ethnic characteristics can be seen in early Buddhist art in Japan and some early Japanese Buddhist sculpture is now believed to have originated in Korea, particularly from Baekje, or Korean artisans who immigrated to Yamato Japan. Particularly, the semi-seated Maitreya course was adapted into a highly developed Korean way which was transmitted to Nihon as evidenced by the Koryu-ji Miroku Bosatsu and the Chugu-ji Siddhartha statues. Although many historians portray Korea every bit a mere transmitter of Buddhism, the Three Kingdoms, and particularly Baekje, were instrumental equally active agents in the introduction and formation of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552.^[34]

Unified Silla [edit]

During the Unified Silla menstruum, East asia was peculiarly stable with Cathay and Korea both enjoying unified governments. Early Unified Silla art combined Silla styles and Baekje styles. Korean Buddhist art was besides influenced by new Tang Dynasty styles as evidenced by a new popular Buddhist motif with full-faced Buddha sculptures. Tang China was the cross roads of East, Central, and South Asia and so the Buddhist art of this time period showroom the and so-called international mode. Country-sponsored Buddhist art flourished during this period, the epitome of which is the Seokguram Grotto.

Goryeo Dynasty [edit]

The fall of the Unified Silla Dynasty and the institution of the Goryeo Dynasty in 918 indicates a new period of Korean Buddhist fine art. The Goryeo kings also lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist art flourished, specially Buddhist paintings and illuminated sutras written in aureate and silverish ink. [1]. The crowning achievement of this period is the carving of approximately 80,000 woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana which was done twice.

Joseon Dynasty [edit]

The Joseon Dynasty actively suppressed Buddhism beginning in 1406 and Buddhist temples and art production subsequently turn down in quality in quantity although beginning in 1549, Buddhist art does continue to be produced. [2].

Japan [edit]

Before the introduction of Buddhism, Nihon had already been the seat of various cultural (and artistic) influences, from the abstract linear decorative art of the indigenous Neolithic Jōmon from around 10500 BCE to 300 BCE, to the art during the Yayoi and Kofun periods, with developments such as Haniwa art.

The cultural exchange between India and Japan was not direct, as Japan received Buddhism through Korea, China, Fundamental Asia and eventually India. The Japanese discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when missionary monks travelled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The cultural contact between Indian Dharmic civilization and Nihon through the adoption of Buddhist ideas and artful has contributed to the development of a national cultural order in the subsequent century.^[35] The Buddhist religion was adopted by the land in the following century. Beingness geographically at the end of the Silk Route, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very fourth dimension it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia.

From 711, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the upper-case letter city of Nara, including a five-story pagoda, the Golden Hall of the Horyuji, and the Kōfuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, oftentimes under governmental sponsorship. Indian, Hellenistic, Chinese and Korean artistic influences composite into an original style characterized by realism and gracefulness.

The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th centuries during the periods of Nara, Heian and Kamakura. Nippon developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. This art can be very varied, creative and bold. Jōchō is said to exist ane of the greatest Buddhist sculptors not just in Heian menstruation merely too in the history of Buddhist statues in Japan. Jōchō redefined the torso shape of Buddha statues by perfecting the technique of "yosegi zukuri" (寄木造り) which is a combination of several woods. The peaceful expression and graceful figure of the Buddha statue that he made completed a Japanese style of sculpture of Buddha statues called "Jōchō yō" (Jōchō style, 定朝様) and determined the style of Japanese Buddhist statues of the later flow. His achievement dramatically raised the social status of busshi (Buddhist sculptor) in Nihon.^[36]

In the Kamakura menstruum, the Minamoto association established the Kamakura shogunate and the samurai class well-nigh ruled Japan for the first time. Jocho's successors, sculptors of the Kei school of Buddhist statues, created realistic and dynamic statues to conform the tastes of samurai, and Japanese Buddhist sculpture reached its peak. Unkei, Kaikei, and Tankei were famous, and they fabricated many new Buddha statues at many temples such as Kofuku-ji, where many Buddha statues had been lost in wars and fires.^[37] One of the most outstanding Buddhist arts of the menses was the statue of Buddha enshrined in Sanjūsangen-dō consisting of 1032 statues produced by sculptors of Buddhist statues of the Kei school, In school and En schoolhouse. The 1 master image Senju Kannon in the center, the surrounding 1001 Senju Kannon, the 28 attendants of Senju Kannon, Fūjin and Raijin create a solemn space, and all Buddha statues are designated as National Treasures.^[38] ^[39]

From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, and it faces golden days in Muromachi Menstruation, following the introduction of the organized religion by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from Prc. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-east) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true essence of the earth through impressionistic and unadorned "non-dualistic" representations. The search for enlightenment "in the moment" too led to the development of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea anniversary or the Ikebana art of blossom organization. This evolution went as far as because almost whatever human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, kickoff and foremost in those activities related to gainsay techniques (martial arts).

Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Even so around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved. Many of them are in wood and are regularly restored.

Tibet and Bhutan [edit]

Yama, 18th century, Tibet

Tantric Buddhism started every bit a movement in eastern India effectually the fifth or the sixth century. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are derived from Brahmanism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings). Tantrism became the ascendant form of Buddhism in Tibet from the 8th century. Due to its geographical centrality in Asia, Tibetan Buddhist art received influence from Indian, Nepali, Greco-Buddhist and Chinese art.

One of the about feature creations of Tibetan Buddhist art are the mandalas, diagrams of a "divine temple" made of a circle enclosing a square, the purpose of which is to assist Buddhist devotees focus their attending through meditation and follow the path to the central image of the Buddha. Artistically, Buddhist Gupta art and Hindu art tend to be the two strongest inspirations of Tibetan fine art.

In 10th to 11th centuries, Tabo Monastery in Himachal Pradesh, Northern Republic of india (at that time office of Western Tibet Kingdom) serves an important part as an intermediary between India and Tibet cultural exchange, particularly Buddhist art and philosophy. Notable example of Tibetan Buddhist art in Tabo is its exquisite frescoes.^[twoscore]

Vietnam [edit]

The boy Buddha rise upwards from lotus. Crimson and aureate forest, Trần-Hồ dynasty, Vietnam, 14th–15th century

Chinese influence was predominant in the northward of Vietnam (Tonkin) between the 1st and 9th centuries, and Confucianism and Mahayana Buddhism were prevalent. Overall, the art of Vietnam has been strongly influenced past Chinese Buddhist art.

In the south thrived the erstwhile kingdom of Champa (earlier it was subsequently overtaken by the Vietnamese from the north). Champa had a strongly Indianized art, just as neighboring Kingdom of cambodia. Many of its statues were characterized by rich body adornments. The capital of the kingdom of Champa was annexed by Vietnam in 1471, and it totally collapsed in the 1720s, while Cham people remain an abundant minority beyond Southeast Asia.

Southern Buddhist art [edit]

The orthodox forms of Buddhism, also known as Southern Buddhism are yet practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Kingdom of cambodia. During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted by the rise of the Parthian empire in the Centre E, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their need for Asian luxury was rising. This need revived the ocean connections between the Mediterranean Ocean and Red china, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that fourth dimension, through trade connections, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there.

A Cambodian Buddha, 14th century

For more a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. This expansion provided the artistic context for the development of Buddhist art in these countries, which so developed characteristics of their own.

Between the 1st and 8th centuries, several kingdoms competed for influence in the region (specially the Cambodian Funan then the Burmese Monday kingdoms) contributing various artistic characteristics, mainly derived from the Indian Gupta style. Combined with a pervading Hindu influence, Buddhist images, votive tablets and Sanskrit inscriptions are found throughout the area. Between 8th- and 12th-century, nether the patronage of Pala dynasty, arts and ideas of Buddhism and Hinduism co-developed and became increasingly intermeshed.^[41] However, with Muslim invasion and sacking of monasteries in India, states Richard Blurton, "Buddhism collapsed as a major force in Republic of india".^[41]

Past the 8th to 9th century, Sailendran Buddhist art were developed and flourished in Medang Mataram kingdom of Primal Java, Indonesia. This period marked the renaissance of Buddhist art in Java, as numerous exquisite monuments were congenital, including Kalasan, Manjusrigrha, Mendut and Borobudur rock mandala. The traditions would keep to the 13th century Singhasari Buddhist fine art of East Java.

From the 9th to the 13th centuries, Southeast Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic cosmos. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, merely both were adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas. The Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon was introduced to the region around the 13th century from Sri Lanka, and was adopted past the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai. Since in Theravada Buddhism of the period, Monasteries typically were the central places for the laity of the towns to receive instruction and have disputes arbitrated by the monks, the structure of temple complexes plays a especially important office in the creative expression of Southeast Asia from that time.

From the 14th century, the chief gene was the spread of Islam to the maritime areas of Southeast Asia, overrunning Malaysia, Indonesia, and virtually of the islands equally far equally the Southern Philippines. In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Burma, Laos and Cambodia.

Sri Lanka [edit]

According to tradition, Buddhism was introduced in Sri Lanka in the third century BCE by Indian missionaries under the guidance of Thera Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Prior to the expansion of Buddhism, the indigenous population of Sri Lanka lived in an animistic world full of superstition. The assimilation and conversion of the various pre-Buddhist behavior was a slow process. In order to gain a foothold amongst the rural population, Buddhism needed to assimilate the various categories of spirits and other supernatural beliefs.^{[ citation needed ]} The earliest monastic complex was the Mahāvihāra at Anurādhapura founded by Devānampiyatissa and presented to Mahinda Thera. The Mahāvihāra became the centre of the orthodox Theravāda doctrine and its supreme position remained unchallenged until the foundation of the Abhayagiri Vihāra around 89 BCE by Vaţţagāmaņĩ.

The Abhayagiri Vihāra became the seat of the reformed Mahāyāna doctrines. The rivalry between the monks of the Mahāvihāra and the Abhayagiri led to a further split and the foundation of the Jetavanarama near the Mahāvihāra. The main characteristic of Sinhala Buddhism was its partitioning into 3 major groups, or nikāyas, named afterward the iii main monastic complexes at Anurādhapura; the Mahāvihāra, the Abhayagiri, and the Jetavanārāma. This was the result in the deviations in the disciplinary rules (vinaya) and doctrinal disputes. All the other monasteries of Sri Lanka owed ecclesiastical allegiance to i of the three. Sri Lanka is famous for its creations of Buddhist sculptures made of rock and cast in statuary alloy.^[42]

Myanmar [edit]

A Mandalay-style statue of Buddha

A neighbor of India, Myanmar (Burma) was naturally strongly influenced past the eastern part of Indian territory. The Mon of southern Burma are said to have been converted to Buddhism effectually 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the schism between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.

Early Buddhist temples are found, such as Beikthano in central Myanmar, with dates between the 1st and the fifth centuries. The Buddhist art of the Mons was particularly influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and postal service-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in Southeast Asia following the expansion of the Mon Empire between the fifth and 8th centuries.

Later, thousands of Buddhist temples were built at Bagan, the uppercase, between the 11th and 13th centuries, and around 2,000 of them are still standing. Beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha are remaining from that period. Creation managed to continue despite the seizure of the urban center by the Mongols in 1287.

Scenes from the life of the Buddha in an 18th-century Burmese watercolour

During the Ava period, from the 14th to 16th centuries, the Ava (Innwa) style of the Buddha image was popular. In this style, the Buddha has large protruding ears, exaggerated eyebrows that bend upward, half-closed eyes, sparse lips and a hair bun that is pointed at the top, usually depicted in the bhumisparsa mudra.^[43]

During the Konbaung dynasty, at the end of the 18th century, the Mandalay manner of the Buddha image emerged, a style that remains popular to this day.^[44] At that place was a marked departure from the Innwa way, and the Buddha's face is much more natural, fleshy, with naturally-slanted eyebrows, slightly slanted eyes, thicker lips, and a round hair bun at the top. Buddha images in this style tin exist found reclining, standing or sitting.^[45] Mandalay-style Buddhas wear flowing, draped robes.

Some other common style of Buddha images is the Shan mode, from the Shan people, who inhabit the highlands of Myanmar. In this style, the Buddha is depicted with angular features, a large and prominently pointed olfactory organ, a pilus bun tied similar to Thai styles, and a pocket-size, thin mouth.^[46]

Cambodia [edit]

Cambodia was the center of the Funan kingdom, which expanded into Burma and every bit far south as Malaysia betwixt the tertiary and 6th centuries. Its influence seems to have been substantially political, most of the cultural influence coming directly from Republic of india.

Later, from the 9th to 13th centuries, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated vast parts of the Southeast Asian peninsula, and its influence was foremost in the evolution of Buddhist art in the region. Nether the Central khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Kingdom of cambodia and in neighboring Thailand and Laos. The purple patronage for Khmer Buddhist fine art reached its new height with the patronage of Jayavarman Vii, a Buddhist king that congenital Angkor Thom walled city, adorned with the grin face of Lokeshvara in Angkor Thom dvaras (gates) and prasat towers Bayon.^[47] Angkor was at the middle of this evolution, with a Buddhist temple complex and urban system able to support around 1 1000000 urban dwellers. A great bargain of Cambodian Buddhist sculpture is preserved at Angkor; however, organized looting has had a heavy impact on many sites around the country.

Often, Khmer art manages to limited intense spirituality through divinely beaming expressions, in spite of spare features and slender lines.

Thailand [edit]

The Thai Buddhist art encompasses menstruation for more than than a millennia, from pre Thai civilization of Dvaravati and Srivijaya, to the showtime Thai capital of Thai 13th century Sukhothai, all the style to succeeding Thai kingdoms of Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin.^[48]

From the 1st to the seventh centuries, Buddhist art in Thailand was first influenced past direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Monday kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art inspired from the Gupta tradition, with numerous monumental statues of great virtuosity.

From the 9th century, the various schools of Thai fine art then became strongly influenced by Cambodian Khmer art in the due north and Sri Vijaya art in the due south, both of Mahayana faith. Upwardly to the end of that catamenia, Buddhist art is characterized by a articulate fluidness in the expression, and the field of study matter is feature of the Mahayana pantheon with multiple creations of Bodhisattvas.

From the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism was introduced from Sri Lanka around the same time as the indigenous Thai kingdom of Sukhothai was established.^[48] The new faith inspired highly stylized images in Thai Buddhism, with sometimes very geometrical and well-nigh abstract figures.

During the Ayutthaya period (14th-18th centuries), the Buddha came to exist represented in a more stylistic mode with sumptuous garments and jeweled ornamentations. Many Thai sculptures or temples tended to be gilded, and on occasion enriched with inlays.

The ensuing catamenia of Thonburi and Rattanakosin Kingdom saw the farther development of Thai Buddhist fine art.^[48] Past the 18th century, Bangkok was established as the royal heart of the kingdom of Siam. Subsequently, the Thai rulers filled the city with imposing Buddhist monuments to demonstrate their Buddhist piety too as to showcase their authorization. Among others are the celebrated Wat Phra Kaew which hosts the Emerald Buddha. Other Buddhist temples in Bangkok includes Wat Arun with prang style towers, and Wat Pho with its famous image of Reclining Buddha.

Indonesia [edit]

Like the rest of Southeast Asia, Indonesia seems to have been most strongly influenced by India from the 1st century CE. The islands of Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat of the empire of Sri Vijaya (8th-13th century), which came to dominate most of the area around the Southeast Asian peninsula through maritime power. The Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, under a line of rulers named the Sailendra. The Sailendras was the ardent temple builder and the devoted patron of Buddhism in Java.^[49] Sri Vijaya spread Mahayana Buddhist fine art during its expansion into the Southeast Asian peninsula. Numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas from this catamenia are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. One of the earliest Buddhist inscription in Java, the Kalasan inscription dated 778, mentioned about the construction of a temple for the goddess Tara.^[49]

Extremely rich and refined architectural remains are institute in Java and Sumatra. The most magnificent is the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built around 780-850 AD), built by Sailendras.^[49] This temple is modelled afterward the Buddhist concept of universe, the Mandala which counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bell-shaped stupa that contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with long series of bas-reliefs narrated the holy Buddhist scriptures.^[50] The oldest Buddhist structure in Indonesia probably is the Batujaya stupas at Karawang, West Coffee, dated from around the 4th century. This temple is some plastered brick stupas. However, Buddhist fine art in Republic of indonesia achieve the aureate era during the Sailendra dynasty rule in Java. The bas-reliefs and statues of Boddhisatva, Tara, and Kinnara establish in Kalasan, Sewu, Sari, and Plaosan temple is very graceful with serene expression, While Mendut temple near Borobudur, houses the behemothic statue of Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.

In Sumatra Sri Vijaya probably built the temple of Muara Takus, and Muaro Jambi. The well-nigh beautiful example of classical Javanese Buddhist fine art is the serene and fragile statue of Prajnaparamita of Coffee (the drove of National Museum Djakarta) the goddess of transcendental wisdom from Singhasari kingdom.^[51] The Indonesian Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of Republic of india, then followed by Majapahit empire.

Philippines [edit]

The Chief Chantry of a Buddhist Temple in Masangkay Street, Tondo, Manila.

The Philippines's archaeological has a findings of Buddhist artifacts.^[52] ^[53] The fashion exhibits Vajrayāna influence,^[54] ^[55] ^[56] and most of them dated to the ninth century. The artifacts reflect the iconography of the Śrīvijayan empire's Vajrayāna and its influences on the Philippines's early on states. The artifacts' distinct features point to their production in the islands, and they hint at the artisan's or goldsmith's noesis of Buddhist culture and literature considering the artisans take fabricated these unique works of Buddhist art. They imply also the presence of Buddhist believers in the places where these artifacts turned up. These places extended from the Agusan-Surigao area in Mindanao island to Cebu, Palawan, and Luzon islands. Hence, Vajrayāna ritualism must have spread far and broad throughout the archipelago.

Contemporary Buddhist art [edit]

The Final Release, by Abanindranath Tagore. Illustration from the book "Buddha and the gospel of Buddhism" (1916).

Many gimmicky artists have made use of Buddhist themes. Notable examples are Bill Viola, in his video installations,^[57] John Connell, in sculpture,^[58] and Allan Graham in his multi-media "Time is Retentivity".^[59]

In the Great britain The Network of Buddhist Organisations has interested itself in identifying Buddhist practitioners across all the arts. In 2005 it co-ordinated the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland-wide Buddhist arts festival, "A Lotus in Flower";^[60] in 2009 information technology helped organise the 2-twenty-four hours arts conference, "Buddha Heed, Artistic Mind".^[61] As a result of the latter an association of Buddhist artists was formed.^[62]

See likewise [edit]

Gautama Buddha & Buddhism

Early on Buddhist Texts

Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta

Samaññaphala Sutta

Mahaparinibbana Sutta

Nifty Renunciation & Four sights

Physical characteristics of the Buddha

Relics associated with Buddha

Buddharupa

Leela Attitude

Māravijaya Attitude

Meditation Mental attitude

Naga Prok Mental attitude

Buddhist compages

Buddhist music

Buddhist symbolism

Depictions of Gautama Buddha in picture

Notes [edit]

^ "What is Buddhist Art?". Buddhist Fine art News. 23 August 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
^ T. Richard Blurton (1994), Hindu Fine art, Harvard Academy Press, ISBN 978-0674391895, pp. 113–116, 160–162, 191–192
^ Buddhist Art Frontline Magazine 13–26 May 1989
^ Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā". Artibus Asiae. 47 (2): 111–113. doi:ten.2307/3249969. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249969.
^ Rock Edict Nb13 (Due south. Dhammika)
^ "(In the Milindapanha) Menander is declared an arhat", McEvilley, p. 378.
^ Simmons, Caleb; Sarao, One thousand. T. Due south. (2010). "Pushyamitra Sunga, a Hindu ruler in the 2nd century BCE, was a great persecutor of Buddhists". In Danver, Steven 50. Popular Controversies in World History. ABC-CLIO. p. 89. ISBN 978-1598840780
^ Orlina, Roderick (2012). "Epigraphical evidence for the cult of Mahāpratisarā in the Philippines". Journal of the International Clan of Buddhist Studies. 35 (i–2): 165–166. ISSN 0193-600X. Archived from the original on thirty May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019. This image was previously idea to be a distorted Tārā, but was recently correctly identified as a Vajralāsyā ('Bodhisattva of amorous trip the light fantastic'), i of the 4 deities associated with providing offerings to the Buddha Vairocana and located in the southeast corner of a Vajradhātumaṇḍala.
^ Weinstein, John. "Agusan Golden Vajralasya". Google Arts & Civilisation. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Scholars recollect that the statue may represent an offering goddess from a iii-dimensional Vajradhatu (Diamond World) mandala.
^ Sørensen, Henrik H. (1995). "Buddhist Sculptures from the Vocal Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, Sichuan". Artibus Asiae. 55 (3/4): 281–302. doi:ten.2307/3249752. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249752.
^ Solonin, K. J. (2013). "Buddhist Connections between the Liao and Xixia: Preliminary Considerations". Journal of Vocal-Yuan Studies. 43: 171–219. ISSN 1059-3152. JSTOR 43855194.
^ Lin, Hang (i May 2019). "A Sinicised Religion Under Foreign Dominion: Buddhism in the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)". The Medieval History Journal. 22 (i): 23–52. doi:10.1177/0971945818806991. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 165514947.
^ Cotterell, A; The imperial capitals of China: an inside view of the angelic empire, Random Firm 2008, ISBN 978-1-84595-010-i p. 179
^ Ortiz, Valérie Malenfer; Dreaming the southern song mural: the ability of illusion in Chinese painting, Brill 1999, ISBN 978-90-04-11011-three pp. 161–162
^ Cahill, James (1997). "Continuations of Ch'an Ink Painting into Ming-Ch'ing and the Prevalence of Type Images". Archives of Asian Art. 50: 17–41. ISSN 0066-6637. JSTOR 20111272.
^ Ryor, Kathleen G. (2019). "Way as Substance". In Faini, Marco; Meneghin, Alessia (eds.). Mode equally Substance:: Literary Ink Painting and Buddhist Practice in Tardily Ming Dynasty China. Domestic Devotions in the Early Modern World. Vol. 59. Brill. pp. 244–266. ISBN978-xc-04-34254-v. JSTOR x.1163/j.ctvrzgvxg.19. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
^ Ursula., Toyka-Fuong (2014). The splendours of paradise murals and epigraphic documents at the early on Ming Buddhist monastery Fahai Si. Institut Monumenta Serica. ISBN978-3-8050-0617-0. OCLC 1087831059.
^ Weidner, Marsha Smith, and Patricia Ann Berger. Latter Days of the Police force : Images of Chinese Buddhism, 850–1850. Lawrence, KS: Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas, 1994.
^ Berger 1994, p. 113
^ Berger 1994, pp. 114–118
^ Berger 1994, p. 114
^ Berger, Patricia Ann. Empire of Emptiness : Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China. Honolulu: Academy of Hawai'i Press, 2003.
^ "Crown". Arts of Korea. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 9 January 2007.
^ Grayson (2002), p. 21.
^ ^a ^b Grayson (2002), p. 25.
^ Grayson (2002), p. 24.
^ Peter N. Stearns & William Leonard Langer (2001). The Encyclopedia of Earth History: ancient, medieval, and modern, chronologically arranged. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN0-395-65237-five. ; "Korea, 500–1000 A.D." Timeline of Arts History. The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. Retrieved 9 Jan 2007.
^ Grayson (2002), pp. 27 & 33.
^ "Korean Buddhist Sculpture, 5th–ninth Century". Timeline of Arts History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved ix January 2007.
^ "Korean Buddhist Sculpture (5th–9th century) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Fine art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
^ "Japanese Art and Its Korean Clandestine". www2.kenyon.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
^ Fletcher, B.; Cruickshank, D. (1996). Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture. Architectural Press. p. 716. ISBN978-0750622677 . Retrieved 12 Dec 2014.
^ metmuseum.org
^ Grayson, J.H. (2002). Korea: A Religious History. RoutledgeCurzon. p. 33. ISBN978-0700716050 . Retrieved xi December 2014.
^ Sampa Biswas (2010). Indian Influence on the Art of Japan. Northern Book Eye. ISBN978-8172112691.
^ Kotobank, Jōchō. The Asahi Shimbun.
^ Kotobank, Kei school. The Asahi Shimbun.
^ Kotobank, Sanjūsangen-dō. The Asahi Shimbun.
^ Buddhist Statues at the Sanjūsangen-dō. Sanjūsangen-dō.
^ Deborah Due east. Klimburg-Salter; Christian Luczanits (1997). Tabo: a lamp for the kingdom : early Indo Tibetan Buddhist art in the western Himalaya, Archeologia, arte primitiva e orientale. Skira.
^ ^a ^b T. Richard Blurton (1994), Hindu Art, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674391895, pp. 202–204, Quote: "Buddhism flourished in this part of India throughout the first millennium AD, especially nether the patronage of Pala kings of the eighth and twelfth centuries. Towards the cease of this period, popular Buddhism and Hinduism became increasingly intermeshed. However, when Muslim invaders from further west sacked the monasteries in the twelfth century, Buddhism complanate every bit a major force in India."
^ von Schroeder, Ulrich. 1990. Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. Get-go comprehensive monograph on the stylistic and iconographic development of the Buddhist sculptures of Sri Lanka. 752 pages with 1620 illustrations (twenty color and 1445 one-half-tone illustrations; 144 drawings and five maps. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.). von Schroeder, Ulrich. 1992. The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka – Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka, [catalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur Thousand. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1 Nov 1992 – 26 September 1993]. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.).
^ "The Post Infidel Period – Part 1". seasite.niu.edu. Retrieved 11 Dec 2014.
^ "The Postal service Pagan Period – Part 3". seasite.niu.edu. Retrieved 11 Dec 2014.
^ "buddhaartgallery.com". buddhaartgallery.com. Retrieved xi December 2014.
^ "buddhaartgallery.com". buddhaartgallery.com. Retrieved eleven December 2014.
^ Westward. Vivian De Thabrew (2014). Buddhist Monuments and Temples of Cambodia and Lao people's democratic republic. Author Business firm. p. 33. ISBN978-1496998972.
^ ^a ^b ^c Dawn F. Rooney (2016). Thai Buddhist Art: Discover Thai Art. River Books. ISBN978-6167339696.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jean Philippe Vogel; Adriaan Jacob Barnouw (1936). Buddhist Art in Bharat, Ceylon, and Coffee. Asian Educational Services. pp. ninety–92. ISBN978-8120612259.
^ John Miksic (2012). Borobudur: Gold Tales of the Buddhas. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN978-1462909100.
^ "Prajnaparamita". Virtual Collections of Asian Masterpieces. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
^ Peralta, Jesus T. (July–Baronial 1983). "Prehistoric Gold Ornaments From the Central Bank of the Philippines". Arts of Asia. pp. 54–60.
^ Zafra, Jessica (26 April 2008). "Art Exhibit: Philippines' 'Gold of Ancestors'". Newsweek . Retrieved 6 Feb 2022.
^ Legeza, Laszlo (1988). "Tantric Elements in Pre-Hispanic Gilt Art". Arts of Asia. Vol. 18, no. 4. pp. 129–133.
^ "History of Palawan". Camperspoint. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
^ "Early on Buddhism in the Philippines". Buddhism in the Philippines. 8 November 2014.
^ Buddha Mind in Contemporary Art, University of California Printing, 2004
^ ARTlines, Apr 1983
^ The Brooklyn Rail, December 2007
^ a poster advertisement i of the events is archived here – http://world wide web.nbo.org.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland/whats%20on/poster.pdf Archived 24 August 2005 at the Wayback Auto
^ Lokabandhu. "Triratna Buddhist Community News: Report from 'Buddha Mind – Creative Mind?' conference". fwbo-news.blogspot.com. Retrieved eleven December 2014.
^ "Dharma Arts Network – Launched at Buddha Mind – Creative Heed ?". dharmaarts.ning.com. Archived from the original on ten October 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2014.

References [edit]

Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Britain: Routledge. ISBN0-7007-1605-10.
Gibson, Agnes C. (Tr. from the 'Handbook' of Prof. Albert Grunwedel) (1901). Buddhist Fine art in India. Revised and Enlarged by Jas. Burgess. London: Bernard Quaritc.

Bibliography [edit]

von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1990). Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. (752 p.; 1620 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd. ISBN 962-7049-05-0
von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1992). The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka - Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka, [catalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D. C., i November 1992 – 26 September 1993]. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd. ISBN 962-7049-06-9

External links [edit]

Buddhist Art at the Open Directory Projection
The Herbert Offen Research Drove of the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum
About Sri Lankan classic art since prehistorical era

palmerints1937.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art